Recommendations for Prevention and Control of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Infection and HCV-Related Chronic Disease

Serologic Assays

The only tests currently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for diagnosis of HCV infection are those that measure anti-HCV (Table 2) ⁽¹⁰⁷⁾. These tests detect anti-HCV in >97% of infected patients, but do not distinguish between acute, chronic, or resolved infection. As with any screening test, positive predictive value of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for anti-HCV varies depending on prevalence of infection in the population and is low in populations with an HCV-infection prevalence of <10% ^(1,34). Supplemental testing with a more specific assay (i.e., recombinant immunoblot assay [RIBA^TM]) of a specimen with a positive EIA result prevents reporting of false-positive results, particularly in settings where asymptomatic persons are being tested.

Supplemental test results might be reported as positive, negative, or indeterminate. An anti-HCV-positive person is defined as one whose serologic results are EIA-test-positive and supplemental-test-positive. Persons with a negative EIA test result or a positive EIA and a negative supplemental test result are considered uninfected, unless other evidence exists to indicate HCV infection (e.g., abnormal ALT levels in immunocompromised persons or persons with no other etiology for their liver disease). Indeterminate supplemental test results have been observed in recently infected persons who are in the process of seroconversion, as well as in persons chronically infected with HCV. Indeterminate anti-HCV results also might indicate a false-positive result, particularly in those persons at low risk for HCV infection.

Nucleic Acid Detection

The diagnosis of HCV infection also can be made by qualitatively detecting HCV RNA using gene amplification techniques (e.g., RT-PCR) (Table 2) ⁽¹⁰⁸⁾. HCV RNA can be detected in serum or plasma within 1-2 weeks after exposure to the virus and weeks before the onset of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) elevations or the appearance of anti-HCV. Rarely, detection of HCV RNA might be the only evidence of HCV infection. Although RT-PCR assay kits for HCV RNA are available for research purposes from various manufacturers of diagnostic reagents, none have been approved by FDA. In addition, numerous laboratories perform RT-PCR using in-house laboratory methods and reagents.

Although not FDA-approved, RT-PCR assays for HCV infection are used commonly in clinical practice. Most RT-PCR assays have a lower limit of detection of 100-1,000 viral genome copies/mL. With adequate optimization of RT-PCR assays, 75%-85% of persons who are anti-HCV-positive and >95% of persons with acute or chronic hepatitis C will test positive for HCV RNA. Some HCV-infected persons might be only intermittently HCV RNA-positive, particularly those with acute hepatitis C or with end-stage liver disease caused by hepatitis C. To minimize false-negative results, serum must be separated from cellular components within 2-4 hours after collection, and preferably stored frozen at -20 C or -70 C ⁽¹⁰⁹⁾. If shipping is required, frozen samples should be protected from thawing. Because of assay variability, rigorous quality assurance and control should be in place in clinical laboratories performing this assay, and proficiency testing is recommended.

Quantitative assays for measuring the concentration (titer) of HCV RNA have been developed and are available from commercial laboratories ⁽¹¹⁰⁾, including a quantitative RT-PCR (Amplicor HCV Monitor^TM, Roche Molecular Systems, Branchburg, New Jersey) and a branched DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) signal amplification assay (Quantiplex^TM HCV RNA Assay [bDNA], Chiron Corp., Emeryville, California) (Table 2). These assays also are not FDA-approved, and compared with qualitative RT-PCR assays, are less sensitive with lower limits of detection of 500 viral genome copies/mL for the Amplicor HCV Monitor^TM to 200,000 genome equivalents/mL for the Quantiplex^TM HCV RNA Assay ⁽¹¹¹⁾. In addition, they each use a different standard, which precludes direct comparisons between the two assays. Quantitative assays should not be used as a primary test to confirm or exclude diagnosis of HCV infection or to monitor the endpoint of treatment. Patients with chronic hepatitis C generally circulate virus at levels of 10⁵-10⁷ genome copies/mL. Testing for level of HCV RNA might help predict likelihood of response to antiviral therapy, although sequential measurement of HCV RNA levels has not proven useful in managing patients with hepatitis C.

At least six different genotypes and >90 subtypes of HCV exist ⁽¹¹²⁾. Approximately 70% of HCV-infected persons in the United States are infected with genotype 1, with frequency of subtype 1a predominating over subtype 1b. Different nucleic acid detection methods are available commercially to group isolates of HCV, based on genotypes and subtypes ⁽¹¹³⁾. Evidence is limited regarding differences in clinical features, disease outcome, or progression to cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) among persons with different genotypes. However, differences do exist in responses to antiviral therapy according to HCV genotype. Rates of response in patients infected with genotype 1 are substantially lower than in patients with other genotypes, and treatment regimens might differ on the basis of genotype. Thus, genotyping might be warranted among persons with chronic hepatitis C who are being considered for antiviral therapy.